1886-1959American psychologist primarily noted for his work in evolving a single simple theory of learning. Thus, devaluation was complete. Instrumental responding remains under the control of the consequent outcome after extended training. Food-deprived dogs received pairings of two cues with different-flavored dog biscuits. A variety of neurobiological techniques have been harnessed to provide information relevant to understanding the contents of learning. Contiguity theory suggests that forgetting is due to interference rather than the passage of time; stimuli become associated with new responses. Although many modern reductionist analyses of learning emphasize cellular and molecular changes underlying learning, these analyses are seldom taken as a substitute for behavioral analysis. Animal intelligence: An experimental study of the associative processes in animals. Guthries Learning Theory and Behavior Modification By contrast, most studies of behavior from the S-R tradition focused on temporal variables, and those that related to motivation, such as reward magnitude and deprivation state. They examined the concept of association and its limits in explaining how learning takes place. For example, Galarce, Crombag, and Holland (2007) trained rats with two auditory cues signaling two foods (sucrose and maltodextrin). Tolman EC, Gleitman H. Studies in learning and motivation: I. equal reinforcements in both end-boxes, followed by shock in one end-box. Representation-mediated food aversions. Role of amygdalo-nigral circuitry in conditioning of a visual stimulus paired with food. In contiguity theory, rewards or punishment play no significant role in learning since they occur after the association between stimulus and response has been made. Thus, these lesions apparently alter what is learned from S-S to S-R associations without affecting the most obvious aspects of CR form. An initial approach to this question was to establish steady state performance with a particular reward, and then substitute another reward. Characterization of multiple behavioral and neural consequences of variations in associative learning procedures should lead to richer, if perhaps less fathomable, descriptions of the nature of learning. government site. If a rat was shocked in the same goal box as had always been found at the end of the alley, placing that rat back in the alley start box for test would elicit an rg whose sg feedback was associated with the fractional shock response, and hence produce interference with running. However, if an associatively-activated taste memory instigated these aspects of taste processing, we would have observed differential CeA activity in Maintain and Devalue conditions. 1966. Accessibility Thomas E. The role of postural adjustments in conditioning of dogs with electrical stimulation of the motor cortex as the unconditioned stimulus. 3rd ed. During his rise to full professor in 1928, he developed his learning theory in association with Stevenson Smith, who was then department chairman of psychology at Washington. The unusual feature of this experiment was that, in different test sessions, either the averted or the nonaverted US was presented in the food cup during the devaluation test. By contrast, in the latter case, the CS activated only gnostic units which coded information about the US, but which did not normally generate perceptual processing. Clearly, there is more to the story than S-S versus S-R associations. Doty RW, Giurgea C. Conditioned reflexes established by coupling electrical excitation of two cortical areas. Dashes (---) signify arranged relations; arrows () signify learned associations; double-headed arrows ( ) signify bidirectional associations; lines () signify unconditioned relations. Improvement comes about because irrelevant movements are unlearned or not included in successive associations. Neurophysiological characterizations of learning are on much firmer ground today than they were in 1950, and are far more likely to be based on data than on speculation. Associative structures in instrumental learning. Spence noted that cognitive theorists tended to emphasize the intrinsic properties of their constructs, whereas S-R theorists tended to be concerned with the empirical relations among experimental variables that determine their constructs. Contiguity Theory (Edwin Guthrie) Exposure to many variations in stimulus patterns is desirable in order to produce a generalized response. Effect of reinforcer devaluation on discriminative control of instrumental behavior. Thus, from these reactions to the substituted reward, monkeys must have represented specific aspects of reward in memory. Kerfoot EC, Agarwal I, Lee HJ, Holland PC. The effects of satiation after first- and second-order appetitive conditioning. Grill HJ, Norgren R. The taste reactivity test. WebFor Guthrie, learning consists of the association of a stimulus with a behavior. For example, studies of neural plasticity in eyelid conditioning (e.g., Medina et al., 2000; Steinmetz et al., 1989; Thompson et al., 1998) have identified cerebellar sites of plasticity that are characterizable as being within output paths and hence more S-R, as well as other sites earlier in the processing stream. Nevertheless, even after extended training, CSs can activate reinforcer representations that include rich sensory information, which can subserve reinforcer devaluation effects. Holland PC. Interestingly, much of this debate was eventually distilled to the issue of place versus response, which could just as easily phrased entirely in S-R terms as approach cue X versus turn right. Edwin Guthrie, born Jan. 9, 1886, in Lincoln, Nebraska, was one of five children. For example, although devaluation effects are often small, the prevailing opinion seems to be that the residual responding after devaluation reflects inadequacy of the devaluation procedure rather than S-R learning. Closer to the mark was an experiment performed in Tolman's laboratory by Elliot (1928), in which different groups of rats were trained to run in a complex maze for either sunflower seeds or the preferred bran mash. Brain mechanisms for changes in processing of conditioned stimuli in Pavlovian conditioning: Implications for behavior theory. Doty & Giurgea, 1961), later experiments (e.g., Thomas, 1971; Wagner, Thomas, & Norton, 1967) cast doubt on whether such studies revealed direct Pavlovian conditioning of leg flexion responses or the instrumental conditioning of responses that reduced the negative postural consequences of the sudden uncontrolled leg movements elicited by motor cortex stimulation. Acquisition of representation mediated conditioned food aversions. Early studies with peripheral blockade of responses during training typically revealed substantial responding after the blockade was removed (e.g., Finch, 1938). Previous conditioning can also be changed by being associated with inhibiting responses such as fear or fatigue. In these studies it was encouraging that the amount of reduction in consumption was positively correlated with the amount of reduction in food cup responding during the CS. However each rat immediately dashed off gaily and just as usual through the whole discrimination apparatus and bang whack into the food compartment in which he had just been shocked (Tolman, 1933, p. Although the rats readily consumed the sunflower seeds with no signs of disturbance, performance on subsequent trials was considerably disrupted, so as to be worse than the performance of rats that had been trained with sunflower seed reward from the start. (PDF) Edwin Guthrie (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); Copyright 2023 Richard Culatta. Rescorla, 1973, 1974). What is learned?: An empirical enigma. Holland PC. Ward-Robinson J, Hall G. Backward sensory preconditioning. During World War II he was a lieutenant in the U.S. Army, serving as a consultant to the overseas branch of the general staff of the War Department and Office of War Information. Behaviorists excluded self-observation as a scientific method of investigation and preferred experimentation. ThePsychology of Learning and Motivation. In each experiment an auditory or visual conditioned stimulus (CS) was first paired with food, then the food was either Devalued by pairing it with lithium chloride (LiCl) or Maintained by presenting food and LiCl unpaired, and finally the CS was presented alone in test. Holland PC, Wheeler DS. Nevertheless, hundreds of sensory preconditioning experiments have yielded evidence for learning in the absence of obvious responses (e.g., Thompson, 1972). Vidal-Gonzalez I, Vidal-Gonzalez B, Rauch SL, Quirk GJ. Precise, pharmacologically selective lesions and reversible inactivations of various cell groups can selectivity alter rats' sensitivity to devaluation, without affecting other aspects of performance. In the experiments discussed above, the logic was to examine the consequences of altering the conditions of learning so that they would be conducive (or not) to either S-S or S-R learning. Procedures and outcomes of the sensory preconditioning experiment. Theory of contiguity | Association, Memory & Learning Positive and negative motivation in nucleus accumbens shell: bivalent rostrocaudal gradients for GABA-elicited eating, taste liking/disliking reactions, place preference/avoidance, and fear. In: Delafresnaye JF, editor. Contiguity theory is regarded as a general learning theory even though mostly animals were used to conduct research. Behaviorism was a school of psychology which felt that psychology as a science must be predicated on a study of what is observable. Post-mortem tissue analysis can reveal detailed information about individual neurons that were active (Lee et al., 2005) or undergoing plastic change (Guzowski & Worley, 2001; Petrovich et al., 2005) during fairly restricted time intervals, such as a particular behavioral test episode, before sacrifice. Thus, within this view, mediated flavor aversion learning was not observed later in training because the CS no longer activated perceptual processing of the absent flavor, which could enter into associations with illness. In addition, in both delivery conditions, simple licking responses, characterized by Berridge (2000) as consummatory but nonhedonic, showed moderate but not complete sensitivity to devaluation. Results such as these have encouraged the authors of texts of learning and introductory psychology to assert that conditioning is predominantly S-S. Furthermore, these studies indicate that different portions of that circuitry have specialized functions within the devaluation task. Hence, movements, instead of behaviors, are learned. At the time of tone-sucrose pairing, and during sucrose-alone administration prior to LiCl injection, sucrose elicited only positive TRs, and sucrose was not presented again after the single LiCl injection. Holland PC. For example, motivational states relevant to the reinforcers can be induced chemically (e.g., increasing or decreasing sodium balance after training with salt solution rewards) or by altering exposure to them (e.g., selective satiation of one of two food rewards). Similarly, particular aspects of rewards may be altered associatively by pairing them with various agents that increase or decrease their attractiveness. Thus, at least some properties of the reinforcer seem to be coded by the CS after simple conditioning procedures. Guthrie, Edwin R. | Encyclopedia.com - Free Online Encyclopedia Neurotoxic lesions of the basolateral, but not central, amygdala interfere with Pavlovian second order conditioning and reinforcer devaluation effects. Rats first received tonesucrose pairings followed by either sucrose-lithium chloride (LiCl) pairings (Devalue) or unpaired presentations of those events (Maintain). Instead, animals with those lesions perform at normal pre-devaluation levels, but fail to adjust their responding downward after devaluation. Finally, we have been using techniques of immediate-early gene expression to relate brain function to performance in simple devaluation (and other) tasks. However, a simpler possibility is that the intraoral delivery of the reinforcer, and the use of that delivery method during both training and devaluation phases, are more critical factors.
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