what is affect believed to be a component of?

& Reifler, J. Patient knowledge and recall of health information following exposure to facts and myths message format variations. J. Exp. Behav. Amazeen, M. A. Corrected misinformation can also continue to influence the amount a person is willing to pay for a consumer product or their propensity to promote a social media post93,94,95. Forgas, J. P. Happy believers and sad skeptics? Bipolar Disorder Causes & Risk Factors - WebMD Pickard, V. Restructuring democratic infrastructures: a policy approach to the journalism crisis. & Kse, D. Perceived truth of statements and simulated social media postings: an experimental investigation of source credibility, repeated exposure, and presentation format. Why do people believe COVID-19 conspiracy theories? N. Media Soc. Commun. Res. Counsel. Princ. J. Samuel Bois reminds us that, "Apart from inherited variability, affects are made different in their manifestations and in their expected satisfactions by the culture in which we are brought up". Thus, repetition increases belief in both misinformation and facts40,41,42,43. Mem. Kennedy Sch. Commun. & Chang, D. Correcting false information in memory: manipulating the strength of misinformation encoding and its retraction. 25, 1235 (2021). For example, it has been proposed that a retraction causes the misinformation representation to be tagged as false107. A 2022 study looked at the lungs of people much younger than 50 who smoked both tobacco and cannabis and found 75% had emphysema, a disease of the small airways that causes damage to the air sacs . With these alternative goals in mind, the viral nature of misinformation doesnot occur despite its low veracity but because of its ability to fulfil other psychological needs11. 65, 699719 (2015). You dont have to tell a story! Nadarevic, L., Reber, R., Helmecke, A. J. van der Meer, T. G. L. A. This emotional mechanism might help correction recipients realign their understanding of the situation with reality (for example, to realize they have underestimated the real threat)113,140. & Hong, Y. Does media literacy help identification of fake news? Van Boekel, M., Lassonde, K. A., OBrien, E. J. Swire-Thompson, B., Miklaucic, N., Wihbey, J., Lazer, D. & DeGutis, J. The third socio-affective factor that influences the CIE is emotion. Psychol. Parker, K. A., Ivanov, B. Res. we believe it is more worthwhile. How the Health Belief Model Influences Your Behaviors - Verywell Mind J. Consum. Hum. 58, 812822 (1990). Commun. Other strategies have the potential to reduce the impact of misinformation without regulation of media content. & Vargo, C. J. A second approach is to address the logical fallacies common in some types of disinformation for example, corrections that highlight inherently contradictory claims such as global temperature cannot be measured accurately and temperature records show it has been cooling (Fig. Pew Research Center. In general, more detailed refutations work better than plain retractions that do not provide any detail on why the misinformation is incorrect92,100,112,113. Cogn. 8, 855863 (2020). Lang. & Gauvin, J.-P. Public perceptions of expert credibility on policy issues: the role of expert framing and political worldviews. & Bucy, E. P. Conferring resistance to digital disinformation: the inoculating influence of procedural news knowledge. Walter, N. & Murphy, S. T. How to unring the bell: a meta-analytic approach to correction of misinformation. 32, 303330 (2010). Curr. OSF https://osf.io/udny9/ (2021). & Spier, R. Fear misinformation, and innumerates: how the Wakefield paper, the press, and advocacy groups damaged the public health. Public Underst. Vraga, E. K. & Bode, L. Addressing COVID-19 misinformation on social media preemptively and responsively. On April 26, five people were arrested in the Dallas area after officials learned department employees provided information in exchange for monetary compensation from stations suspected of criminal activity to help them avoid detection. Sci. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118x.2020.1764603 (2020). Each is now charged with engaging in organized criminal activity and has been suspended pending the results of the criminal and administrative investigations. Given the effectiveness of algorithmic corrections, social media companies and regulators should promote implementation and evaluation of technical solutions to misinformation on social media. Ninfa Saavedra, Digital Content Specialist. Backfire effects after correcting misinformation are strongly associated with reliability. However, these findings have not been replicated107,289 or remain unpublished. Schmid, P., MacDonald, N. E., Habersaat, K. & Butler, R. Commentary to: How to respond to vocal vaccine deniers in public. The effect of news labels on perceived credibility. Similarly, allowing people to deliberate can improve their judgements. Glob. The contemporary information landscape brings particular challenges: the internet and social media have enabled an exponential increase in misinformation spread and targeting to precise audiences14,16,208,209. Brydges, C. R., Gordon, A. Behav. Tenove, C. Protecting democracy from disinformation: normative threats and policy responses. Marks, G. & Miller, N. Ten years of research on the false-consensus effect: an empirical and theoretical review. Acerbi, A. Cognitive attraction and online misinformation. However, there seems to be little continued influence of negative misinformation on impression formation when the person subjected to the false allegation is not a disliked politician, perhaps because reliance on corrected misinformation might be seen as biased or judgemental (that is, it might be frowned upon to judge another person even though allegations have been proven false)136. Cook, J., Bedford, D. & Mandia, S. Raising climate literacy through addressing misinformation: case studies in agnotology-based learning. Moreover, just as a sad mood can protect against initial misinformation belief80, it also seems to facilitate knowledge revision when a correction is encountered138. Res. Different types of misinformation exist for example, misinformation that goes against scientific consensus or misinformation that contradicts simple, objectively true facts. 111, 3654 (2020). Res. Commun. Cook, J., Lewandowsky, S. & Ecker, U. K. H. Neutralizing misinformation through inoculation: exposing misleading argumentation techniques reduces their influence. When deciding what is true, people are often biased to believe in the validity of information30, and go with their gut and intuitions instead of deliberating31,32. Psychol. A second key socio-affective factor is worldview a persons values and belief system that grounds their personal and sociocultural identity. Happiness is a positive emotional sate that is defined individually or subjectively Within the scientific community there is little consensus on the definition of happiness True Which term for well-being is most likely to be used by the media and lay people? Houston Pets Alive! on Practical implications. Res. An experimental study in identifying checkable statements in political discourse. In this Review, we describe the cognitive, social and affective processes that make misinformation stick and leave people vulnerable to the formation of false beliefs. 30, 240259 (2019). Lazer, D. M. J. et al. Shelby, A. Spotless giraffe born at Tennessee zoo believed to be the - 21Alive This research should also employ non-experimental methods230,231,271, such as observational causal inference (research aiming to establish causality in observed real-world data)272, and test the impact of interventions in the real world145,174,181,207. Persuasive effects of scientific consensus communication. & Wojdynski, B. W. Reducing native advertising deception: revisiting the antecedents and consequences of persuasion knowledge in digital news contexts. Memory Cogn. a | Integration account of continued influence. Res. Commun. & Ernst, K. Story and science. Lying in everyday life. Proc. These concerns must be balanced. The first element is warning recipients of the threat of misleading persuasion. Change 126, 255262 (2014). Gen. 121, 446458 (1992). J. Appl. Misinformation Rev. Ultimately, the success of psychological research into misinformation should be linked not only to theoretical progress but also to societal impact273. Res. This persistence is known as the continued influence effect (CIE)85,86,87,88. Thus, the overkill backfire effect does not have empirical support. Many Americans wrongly believe exposure to marijuana smoke is - CNN Ognyanova, K., Lazer, D., Robertson, R. E. & Wilson, C. Misinformation in action: fake news exposure is linked to lower trust in media, higher trust in government when your side is in power. The misinformation can be retrieved without the false tag, but the false tag cannot be retrieved without concurrent retrieval of the misinformation. First, the most important element of a debunking correction is to provide a factual account that ideally includes an alternative explanation for why something happened85,86,99,102,184. Technol. Change 3, 399404 (2013). For example, labelling can lead readers to be more sceptical of promoted content220. Pediatrics 133, e835e842 (2014). Martel, C., Pennycook, G. & Rand, D. G. Reliance on emotion promotes belief in fake news. Psychol. Curr. 55, 107119 (2020). The spreading of misinformation online. Political fact-checking on Twitter: when do corrections have an effect? Genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Learn. Tsipursky, G., Votta, F. & Mulick, J. Colour shading is used to show how specific strategies are applied in the example corrections. Pennycook, G., Cannon, T. D. & Rand, D. G. Prior exposure increases perceived accuracy of fake news. 42, 6274 (2016). Soc. J. Exp. Sci. The Health Belief Model (HBM) is a tool that scientists use to try to predict health behaviors. Finally, we return to the broader societal trends that have contributed to the rise of misinformation and discuss its practical implications on journalism, education and policymaking. Ecker, U. K. H., OReilly, Z., Reid, J. S. & Chang, E. P. The effectiveness of short-format refutational fact-checks. Natl Acad. Hum. Political Behav. Res. Does anyone still believe in 'gentle commerce'? | World Economic Forum acknowledges support from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, the Volkswagen Foundation (large grant Reclaiming individual autonomy and democratic discourse online) and the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) through a Knowledge Exchange Fellowship. Proc. Happiness 27, 807823 (2018). Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Which group of psychologists is known to approach their research with questions about "what is working" instead of "what is not working?", What do we call researchers who study resources that help children and adolescents overcome life's many challenges?, Who designs and conducts programs to help youth make the most of their . Law Security Rev. These exercises are assumed to protect and strengthen the correction recipients self-esteem and the value of their identity, thereby reducing the threat associated with the correction and associated processing biases. Nyhan, B. Am. It's believed that there is a genetic component to depression, and researchers are still trying to understand the genetics involved. & Stuckler, D. Systematic literature review on the spread of health-related misinformation on social media. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Commun. & Wood, T. J. Soc. Vlasceanu, M. & Coman, A. Political Soc. Unkelbach, C. & Greifeneder, R. Experiential fluency and declarative advice jointly inform judgments of truth. 42, 939960 (2019). AIDS Behav. Am. Vol. Sociol. 36, 983991 (2010). Those reputation costs are real over half of social media users report that they have stopped following someone who posted made-up news and information280. If no misinformation is circulating but there is potential for it to emerge in the future, practitioners can consider possible misinformation sources and anticipate misinformation themes. Res. Lewandowsky, S. et al. Soc. Fazio, L. K., Brashier, N. M., Payne, B. K. & Marsh, E. J. J. Exp. Donald J. Boudreaux, Senior Scholar at Brownstone Institute, is a Professor of Economics at George Mason University, where he is affiliated with the F.A. Media 63, 415432 (2019). Begg, I. M., Anas, A. Political Psychol. Conroe ISD received a phoned-in report that bombs were placed in the school. This rejection of science is not the result of mere ignorance but is driven by factors such as conspiratorial mentality, fears, identity expression and motivated reasoning reasoning driven more by personal or moral values than objective evidence19,23,24,25,26. Psychol. If you need help with the Public File, call (713) 778-4745. & Fielding, K. S. Attitude roots and jiu jitsu persuasion: understanding and overcoming the motivated rejection of science. Rev. The drivers include cognitive factors, such as use of intuitive thinking and memory failures; social factors, such as reliance on source cues to determine truth; and affective factors, such as the influence of mood on credulity. Commun. Press Politics 25, 469492 (2020). Given the benefits of persuading onlookers through observational correction, everyone should be encouraged to civilly, carefully and thoughtfully correct online misinformation where they encounter it (unless they deem it a harmless fringe view)119,206. Journal. J. Appl. Digit. The backfire effect of greatest concern is arguably the worldview backfire effect, thought to arise when people dismiss and counterargue against corrections of false beliefs that are central to their identity126,293. These source judgements are naturally imperfect people believe in-group members more than out-group members55, tend to weigh opinions equally regardless of the competence of those expressing them56 and overestimate how much their beliefs overlap with other peoples, which can lead to the perception of a false consensus57. Behav. The roles of information deficits and identity threat in the prevalence of misperceptions. News in an era of content confusion: effects of news use motivations and context on native advertising and digital news perceptions. The impact of reading format and culture on the continued influence of misinformation. Psychol. Neurosci. Jolley, D. & Douglas, K. M. Prevention is better than cure: addressing anti-vaccine conspiracy theories. Mem. Sci. 3.4 Attitudes and Behavior - Organizational Behavior - OpenStax Misinformation conveying negative emotions such as fear or anger might be particularly likely to evoke a CIE133,134. Trevors, G., Bohn-Gettler, C. & Kendeou, P. The effects of experimentally induced emotions on revising common vaccine misconceptions. Likewise, it has been argued that presenting myths versus facts flyers that repeat to-be-debunked misinformation when correcting it could lead to familiarity backfire effects after a mere 30min288. Kennedy Sch. Section leads worked on individual sections with the lead authors: P.S. 23, 2246 (2019). Comput. Inoculation treatment can help people prepare for subsequent misinformation exposure. Marinescu, I. E., Lawlor, P. N. & Kording, K. P. Quasi-experimental causality in neuroscience and behavioural research. The simplest prebunking interventions involve presenting factually correct information149,150, a pre-emptive correction142,151 or a generic misinformation warning99,148,152,153 before the misinformation. References: This cognitive behavioral exercise was developed . J. Lang. Dir. Res. 102, 7290 (1987). Cogn. on Barriers to belief revision; E.K.V. 4, 160802 (2017). All students and staff are safely outside. Brady, W. J., Gantman, A. P. & Van Bavel, J. J. Attentional capture helps explain why moral and emotional content go viral. Political Behav. Mem. Petersen, M. B., Osmundsen, M. & Arceneaux, K. The need for chaos and motivations to share hostile political rumors. Social media corrections are effective when they come from algorithmic sources203, from expert organizations such as a government health agency119,204,205 or from multiple other users on social media206. People tend to ask themselves How do I feel about this claim?, which can lead to influences of a persons mood on claim evaluation75. Sci. Featherstone, J. D. & Zhang, J. Ithisuphalap, J., Rich, P. R. & Zaragoza, M. S. Does evaluating belief prior to its retraction influence the efficacy of later corrections? Implic. PLoS ONE 12, e0175799 (2017). 8, 88 (2021). Cognition 194, 104054 (2020). Amazeen, M. A., Thorson, E., Muddiman, A. J. Exp. PLoS ONE 12, e0181640 (2017). Thus, the cognitive impacts of other types of misinformation, including subtler types of misdirection such as paltering (misleading while technically saying the truth)95,264,265,266, doctored images267, deepfake videos268 and extreme patterns of misinformation bombardment223, are currently not well understood. However, research to date suggests that literacy interventions do not always mitigate the effects of misinformation170,171,172,173. 27, 116 (2020). Roozenbeek, J. However, this fact is insufficient to explain the rise of misinformation, and its subsequent influence on memory and decision-making, as a major challenge in the twenty-first century2,3,4. & Lee, H. Feeling fine about being wrong: the influence of self-affirmation on the effectiveness of corrective information. The MAD model of moral contagion: The role of motivation, attention, and design in the spread of moralized content online. J. Exp. b | Retrieval account of continued influence. 20, 93120 (2021). Cognit. & Bode, L. Testing the effectiveness of correction placement and type on Instagram. 49, 538542 (2020). Jaff, M. E. & Greifeneder, R. Negative is true here and now but not so much there and then. All students and staff were taken outside and are safe. rescues emaciated dog (Houston Pets Alive!) The psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its resistance to correction, https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-021-00006-y. & Yeo, S. K. The lure of rationality: why does the deficit model persist in science communication? Correspondence to J. Educ. And, they have three components: an affective component (feelings), a behavioral component (the effect of the attitude on behavior), and a cognitive component (belief and knowledge) (Rosenberg & Hovland, . 9, 286299 (2020). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-001 (2020). J. Exp. Online Soc. Misinformation Rev. There are some findings that repeating corrections might lead to a tendency to recall false claims as true, especially after a 3-day delay or in older adults (age 70+years)287. People who thoughtfully seek accurate information are more likely to successfully avoid misinformation compared with people who are motivated to find evidence to confirm their pre-existing beliefs50,227,228. J. Psychol. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-024 (2020). The emotional content of the information shared also affects false-belief formation. Soc. What Are Beliefs? | Psychology Today Commun. Sci. Pennycook, G. & Rand, D. G. Lazy, not biased: susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning. Taber, C. S. & Lodge, M. Motivated skepticism in the evaluation of political beliefs. The "world's rarest" giraffe was born at Bright's Zoo in Limestone on July 31. Amazeen, M. A. PubMed J. Exp. Lecture Notes Comput. Health Commun. Yesilada, M. & Lewandowsky, S. A systematic review: the YouTube recommender system and pathways to problematic content. 46, 204215 (2020). Cognition 124, 209215 (2012). Mosleh, M., Pennycook, G., Arechar, A. Finally, some people share misinformation to fuel moral outrage in others277,284. For example, a person could be warned that many claims about climate change are false and intentionally misleading. 18, 429434 (2007). 33, 219230 (2007). However, if the risk of harm is minimal, there is no need to debunk misinformation that few people are aware of, which could potentially raise the profile of its source. Bull. Discourse Process. Thus, to understand the psychology of misinformation and how it might be countered, it is essential to consider the cognitive architecture and social context of individual decision makers. Speaking my truth: why personal experiences can bridge divides but mislead. Mem. Psychol. Shen, C. et al. The power of the truth bias: false information affects memory and judgment even in the absence of distraction. Islam, A. K. M. N., Laato, S., Talukder, S. & Sutinen, E. Misinformation sharing and social media fatigue during COVID-19: an affordance and cognitive load perspective. Res. https://doi.org/10.2196/18932 (2020). Uscinski, J. E. et al. Soc. J. Exp. However, much work remains to fully understand the psychology of misinformation. Vraga, E. K., Tully, M., Maksl, A., Craft, S. & Ashley, S. Theorizing news literacy behaviors. Proc. Educ. Grinberg, N., Joseph, K., Friedland, L., Swire-Thompson, B. As noted above, our thoughts and feelings lead to behavior and so discrimination is when a person acts in a way that is negative against a group of people. Vaccine 28, 23612362 (2010). Swire, B., Berinsky, A. J., Lewandowsky, S. & Ecker, U. K. H. Processing political misinformation: comprehending the Trump phenomenon. 6, 382388 (2017). J. Appl. Thoughtless sharing can amplify misinformation that might confuse and deceive others. 16, 280291 (2021). One study found that corrections can produce psychological discomfort that motivates a person to disregard the correction to reduce the feeling of discomfort132. 39, 621645 (2017). Second, most existing work has focused on explicit misinformation and text-based materials. Interact. Psychol. Pennycook, G., McPhetres, J., Zhang, Y., Lu, J. G. & Rand, D. G. Fighting COVID-19 misinformation on social media: experimental evidence for a scalable accuracy-nudge intervention. Educ. Inf. However, the prevalence of misinformation cannot be attributed only to technology: conventional efforts to combat misinformation have also not been as successful as hoped2 these include educational efforts that focus on merely conveying factual knowledge and corrective efforts that merely retract misinformation. USA 114, 1271412719 (2017). Indeed, 14% of respondents in a 2016 US survey admitted to knowingly sharing false news281. Post-inoculation talk is more likely to be negative than talk among non-inoculated people, which promotes misinformation resistance both within and between individuals because peoples evaluations tend to weight negative information more strongly than positive information162. Reisach, U. Overall belief in news headlines is higher when the news headlines complement the readers worldview48. Guess, A. M. et al. Marsh, E. J., Cantor, A. D. & Brashier, N. M. Believing that humans swallow spiders in their sleep. R. Soc. J. Appl. S. & Budenz, A. Proc. Cameron, K. A. et al. Additionally, four non-DPS employees were also detained with potential charges pending for their possible involvement in this criminal activity. 39, 854865 (2013). Third, additional translational research is needed to explore questions about causality, including the causal impacts of misinformation and corrections on beliefs and behaviours. Public Interest. Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., Swire, B. Brady, W. J., Crockett, M. J. Clim. Appl. Internet Res. However, the misinformation will remain in memory and can potentially be reactivated and retrieved later on. Danielson, R. W., Sinatra, G. M. & Kendeou, P. Augmenting the refutation text effect with analogies and graphics. Moreover, inoculated people are more likely to talk about the target issue than non-inoculated people, an outcome referred to as post-inoculation talk161.